Construction in York, England unearthed a Viking Age town called Jorvik. Archaeological excavations revealed an Anglo-Norse world rich with information about the past.
York is situated in northeast England, and was founded by Romans around 71 CE, who named it Eboracum. During the Anglo-Saxon period, Eboracum became the center of the kingdom of Northumbria and was known as Eoforwic around 865 CE, when a Great Viking Army landed in England. On November 1st, 866 CE, the Vikings invaded and conquered York. Upon their successful conquest, the Norse permanently settled Eoforwic—Jorvik—around 876 CE. Scandinavian rulers maintained control of Jorvik until the expulsion of Eric Bloodaxe in 954 CE. The York Archaeological Trust began excavating the area in the 1970s and uncovered homes and artifacts from the Viking Age.
On a street named Coppergate, archaeologists uncovered long, narrow plots divided by wattle fences. The street’s name roughly translates to “street of the cup-makers.” Archaeologists did find evidence of cup production but excavations of Coppergate also revealed a market that served as the workplace for Viking Age craftspeople. Particularly interesting for archaeologists, the soils of Jorvik were moist and rich. Oxgates were used to penetrate these soils, and numerous artifacts from the ninth to the tenth centuries were recovered, revealing a wealth of information about the daily lives of Vikings.
Textiles often preserve poorly, but when buried by contaminants in Jorvik, archaeologists encountered well-preserved textiles that included garments made of woven wool. Scholars identified a variety of clothing items, including a sock. Studying the sock, they learned that it had been knitted using a single-eye needle. The wool had been dyed and intricately patterned. A more exceptional find was a fragment of a knitted silk cap, indicating the Vikings’ use of luxurious materials.
Archaeologists also recovered fragments of a woolen sock. Studying the sock, they learned that it had been knitted using a single-eyed needle. The wool had faded over the centuries in the earth, and it is not clear what the original color of the sock was, though a red band was evident around the ankle. So far, the Coppergate sock is the only one of its kind found in England. Not even its matching pair has yet been found. The sock is thus a truly unique Viking import.
In addition to the sock and the shoes, archaeologists also found wooden ice skates in Viking Jorvik. These skates were made of horse bone. Archaeologists speculate that these skates were practical tools for navigating frozen rivers as well as a fun means of recreation.
These unique artifacts offer insights into what the Vikings wore on their feet, the footwear industry in Jorvik, and the many means of getting around in the busy medieval world.
The Vikings remained in York throughout the tenth century CE. Evidence of their occupation has come in various forms. In one pit, dated to the end of the tenth century, archaeologists discovered a crushed textile. Scholars smoothed the item and took a closer look at the mysterious object. They found a very unique silk headdress. The headdress would have covered the back of a person’s head and part of the neck. There were stitches at the bottom of the headdress where it would have been possible to attach ribbons which could have secured the headdress to the head.
Silk was an exotic textile in the medieval world. Possible sources of the silk include the kingdoms of the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond, like the Byzantine Empire. Another possible source was Baghdad. Other pieces of silk were found throughout Jorvik, suggesting that silk was imported into medieval York and made into various items by local craftspeople. Thanks to the perceived value of exotic items in the medieval Norse world, the silk headdress likely belonged to a wealthy Viking woman.
As construction efforts in York continued, a mechanical digger hit something hard. Looking closer, investigators found a well-preserved wooden pit filled with an assortment of items, including iron, glass, bronze, iron, and an extraordinary helmet. The helmet consists of iron and copper alloy. Scholars have dated it to the eighth century CE. This artifact thus predates the Vikings’ settlement of York and offers a glimpse into the world of the Anglo-Saxons who also called Jorvik home.
Taking a closer look at the helmet, archaeologists found an inscription in Latin that read: “In the name of our Lord Jesus, the Holy Spirit, and God; and to all we say Amen/Osher/Christ.” The helmet has been interpreted as both functional armor and a symbol of Anglo-Saxon power.
Excavations at Jorvik revealed some five tons of animal bone, also known as faunal remains. From these remains, archaeologists and zooarchaeologists know that mice and rats scurried around the Anglo-Saxons’ and Vikings’ feet. They caught, traded, and ate fish. Ducks and geese roamed the streets, while dogs, cats, and pigs scuttled around medieval homes. Plant or floral remains were also collected from the Viking town. From excavations, archaeologists believe that plant-based foods such as celery, coriander, lettuce, radishes, and parsnips were part of the Viking diet. These artifacts, while less attractive than others, are highly informative and significant to scholars’ understanding of the Viking world.
The silk headress was not the only item with eastern roots that found its way to Jorvik. The Vikings had traded routes with the Baltic as well. In Jorvik, archaeologists found traces of amber from the Baltic. As with the silk, the amber beads seem to have been imported and then molded by York-based craftsmen. These objects included rings, pendants, and beads.
Amber was a popular material for adornment in the Viking Age, but it may have been more than decorative. One archaeologist suggests that amber objects emitted a static charge or small that the Vikings saw as a sign of magical power.
Another interesting artifact they found from the east was a cowrie shell. Shells occur around the world, but this shell was of the species Cypraea pantherina, found only in the Red Sea. Cowries of this species are not usually found outside the Red Sea. Coins of additional evidence of the Vikings’ eastern connections.
Coins in Jorvik came from many different regions. One coin was made in present-day Uzbekistan around 903-908 CE. In the case of both the shell and the coins from the east, archaeologists were unable to determine if the Vikings traveled to the Red Sea or present-day Uzbekistan themselves or if they acquired these objects from exchange with other marauding traders.
The Scandinavian toponyms suggest connections with Viking-age inhabitants who first conquered the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Eoforwic and prevailed beyond heavily fortified burghs in Ireland. In Jorvik, evidence of connections with Irish emigrants in the form of copper alloy rings points to widespread use to decorate clothing and/or fasten clothing together during the Viking Age. These rings debuted in Ireland in the 10th century.
While many ring pins were recovered from Jorvik excavations, archaeologists have not yet determined if the ring pins were manufactured in Ireland and imported to Jorvik, or if Jorvik-based craftsmen produced imitations of the Irish style. What is clear is that Jorvik maintained connections to the west, leaving a deep impression.
Although many ring pins were collected during excavations at Jorvik, archaeologists have not yet determined if the ring pins were manufactured in Ireland and imported to Jorvik, or if Jorvik-based craftsmen produced imitations of the Irish style, mimicking the Irish style. The important point is that Jorvik maintained connections to the west, leaving a lasting impression.
Archaeologists have recovered an abundance of artifacts that seem to indicate that the Vikings put a lot of effort into their appearance. Excavations in Jorvik revealed that finer rings were popular during this period. Rings made of metal, glass, antler, and walrus ivory have been found in Jorvik. Rings made from warm walrus ivory indicate that the Vikings were connected to Arctic trade routes as well as eastern and western ports.
Jorvik was an important trade hub, but the Vikings also knew how to have fun. Archaeologists found numerous examples of musical instruments, including a panpipe and buzz bones (a medieval noise-making toy). These artifacts add another dimension to the busy medieval world of Viking Jorvik, a place where entertainment and play were integral to trade and perhaps even to political power.
Throughout Viking Jorvik, archaeologists uncovered a number of security implements. These found padlocks made of iron and bronze, keys, and other locking mechanisms. These keys were long and thin pieces of metal that could be inserted into padlocks. Discoveries from excavations show that medieval York was a place where the Vikings could conquer the Anglo-Saxons, build forts, and maintain extensive relationships with the outside world. These artifacts reveal that their homes and towns were worth protecting and are essential to unlocking the secrets of Jorvik’s Viking Age.